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dc.contributor.advisorJan H., Rosenvinge
dc.contributor.authorTutu Dasa, Marcus Småvik
dc.date.accessioned2024-01-04T08:04:50Z
dc.date.available2024-01-04T08:04:50Z
dc.date.issued2024-01-18
dc.description.abstract<p><i>Background:</i> For athletes, it is imperative that energy intake adequately addresses the total energy requirements inherent to their specific sport. Low energy availability, which is the failure to provide the body with adequate energy to sustain physiological homeostasis, may potentially result in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). This is a syndrome that can have detrimental health consequences. There is limited understanding of the energetic requirements, as well as the health consequences of low energy availability and REDs among female football players. Further, several methodological constraints in measuring energy availability impede the validity of findings, complicating their practical application. <p><i>Aims and methods:</i> To assess the accuracy of commonly used tracking devices to estimate the energetic cost of exercise, a key factor in the calculation of energy availability (paper I). To quantify the energy intake, energy expenditure and energy availability (paper II). To assess the suitability of the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) for female football players (paper III). To assess the prevalence of indicators associated with REDs and formulate a cumulative risk index, based on the indicators strength of association with REDs (paper IV). All studies were conducted on a cohort of professional female football players, using prospective and cross-sectional study designs. <p><i>Results and conclusion:</i> All tracking devices significantly underestimated the energetic cost of intermittent exercise in female football players, consequently undermining the assessment of energy availability (paper I). Female football players display moderate levels of energy expenditure and consume inadequate amounts of carbohydrates, with little sign of nutritional periodization (paper II). The LEAF-Q is not suitable as a screening tool for female footballers and is therefore not advisable for application in this population (Paper III). Female footballers may be at risk for development of REDs, emphasizing the need for team support staff to remain vigilant of indicators of the syndrome (paper IV). Identifying the presence of clinical indicators associated with REDs should be prioritized to provide better risk assessments for the individual athlete, as sole assessments energy availability seems to insufficiently reflect health risk among female football players.en_US
dc.description.abstract<p><i>Bakgrunn</i> For idrettsutøvere er det avgjørende at energiinntaket (EI) tilfredsstiller de totale energibehovene, som er spesifikke for deres idrett. Lav energitilgjengelighet (LEA), hvor kroppen ikke får nok energi til å opprettholde homeostase, kan potensielt resultere i relativ energibrist (REDs). Dette er et syndrom som kan ha skadelige helsekonsekvenser, inkludert forstyrrelser i menstruasjons-, ben- og endokrine funksjoner. Det er begrenset forståelse av energibehovene, samt forekomsten og helsekonsekvensene av LEA og REDs blant kvinnelige fotballspillere. Videre hindrer flere metodiske begrensninger i målingen av energitilgjengelighet (EA) validiteten av funnene. Med bakgrunn i dette, var målet med avhandlingen å utforske konseptene rundt energetikk, EA og REDs blant kvinnelige fotballspillere, med ytterligere søkelys på metodiske tilnærminger. <p><i>Metoder</i> Alle de fire artiklene presentert i denne avhandlingen er utført på profesjonelle kvinnelige fotballspillere fra den norske toppserien og førstedivisjon. I artikkel I undersøkte vi nøyaktigheten av alminnelig brukte sporingsenheter for å estimere energikostnaden ved trening og kamp, en nøkkelfaktor i beregningen av EA. Artikkel II kvantifiserte EI, energiforbruk og EA. Kostholdsregistreringer, dobbelt merket vann og GPS-målinger ble brukt for å gi et bredt spekter av mål relatert til kvinnelige spilleres energetikk, samt informasjon om forekomsten av LEA. Artikkel III vurderte validiteten til det ofte brukte spørreskjemaet Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) ved å sammenligne spørreskjemaresultater med indikatorer assosiert med den kvinnelige utøvertriaden (Triaden) og LEA. I artikkel IV undersøkte vi forekomsten av indikatorer forbundet med REDs og formulerte en kumulativ risikoindeks. Dette gir en bedre risikovurdering angående potensiell utvikling av syndromet. <p><i>Resultater</i> Artikkel I viste at alle undersøkte sporingsenhetene betydelig underestimerte energikostnaden ved intermitterende aktivitet, som varierte mellom 10.7 – 20.6%. Alle enhetene viste et systematisk invertert forhold med økende treningsintensitet. Fratrukket etterforbrenning fra oksygengjeld etter fysisk aktivitet i beregningen, ble underestimeringen betydelig mindre (3.1-7.2%). I artikkel II var det gjennomsnittlige daglige energiforbruket 2918 ± 322 kcal (fysisk aktivitetsnivå (PAL) 2.0 ± 0.3). Gjennomsnittlig EI var 2274 ± 450 kcal. En signifikant forskjell ble observert mellom EI på kampdager versus hviledager (p < 0,05), men ikke mellom kampdager versus treningsdager eller treningsdager versus hviledager. Karbohydratinntaket både på kamp- og treningsdager var under de anbefalte retningslinjene for store deler av kohorten. Forekomsten av LEA var 36% og 23% på henholdsvis kamp- og treningsdager. Artikkel III undersøkte validiteten av LEAF-Q som en indikator for Triaden og LEA; imidlertid viste området under kurven (AUC) for LEAF-Q dårlige verdier (0,44 - 0,53) for alle kliniske markører, bortsett fra deteksjon av menstruasjonsforstyrrelser (AUC = 0,86). Spørreskjemaet klarte ikke å skille spillere klassifisert som i risiko eller ikke i risiko basert på indikatorer assosiert med LEA. I artikkel IV var fraværet av alle primære, sekundære eller assosierte indikatorer mellom 33-55%. Imidlertid presenterte 22% av spillerne med kumulative primære og sekundære indikatorer, som var uavhengig av spillerposisjon. Menstruasjonsforstyrrelser ble rapportert av 30% av ikke-prevensjonsbrukere (n=27). Spillere med menstruasjonsforstyrrelser hadde et betydelig høyere antall kumulative indikatorer sammenlignet med spillere uten menstruasjonsforstyrrelser (p < 0.05) <p><i>Konklusjon</i> Nåværende generasjon av sporingssystemer gir ikke nøyaktige estimater av energikostnaden ved intermittent trening, noe som dermed undergraver validiteten av EA målinger ved bruk av disse systemene. Selv om energibehovene til kvinnelige fotballspillere ser ut til å være moderate, møtte en betydelig del av kohorten ikke de ernæringsmessige retningslinjene, særlig med hensyn til karbohydrater. Videre var det begrenset forekomst av ernæringsperiodisering i forhold til fysisk belastning. Til tross for en markant forekomst av LEA, var LEAF-Q ikke i stand til pålitelig å identifisere spillere i risiko for å utvikle helseproblemer knyttet til Triaden og LEA. Fortsatt bruk av LEAF-Q kan derfor ikke anbefales for kvinnelige fotballspillere. Snarere bør metoder som kan evaluere spillere sin helsestatus, som det å identifisere tilstedeværelsen av indikatorer assosiert med REDs prioriteres. Dette vil kunne gi bedre oversikt og risikovurdering for den enkelte, da måling av EA alene ikke ser ut til å gjenspeile potensiell helserisiko blant kvinnelige fotballspillere.en_US
dc.description.doctoraltypeph.d.en_US
dc.description.popularabstractBackground For athletes, it is imperative that energy intake (EI) adequately addresses the total energy requirements inherent to their specific sport. Low energy availability (LEA), which is the failure to provide the body with adequate energy to sustain homeostasis, may potentially result in Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). This is a syndrome that can have detrimental health consequences, including altered menstrual, bone and endocrine functions. There is limited understanding of the energy requirements, as well as the prevalence and health consequences of LEA and REDs among female football players. Further, several methodological limitations in measuring EA impede the validity of findings. Considering this, the objective of this thesis was to explore the concepts of energetics, energy availability (EA) and REDs among female football players, with additional focus on methodological approaches. Methods All four papers presented in this thesis are conducted on professional female football players from the Norwegian premier league (Toppserien) and first division. In paper I we assessed the measurement accuracy of commonly used tracking devices to estimate the energetic cost of exercise, a key factor in the calculation of EA. Paper II quantified the EI, energy expenditure, and EA. Dietary recalls, doubly labeled water and GPS measurements were used to provide a wide range of measures related to the energetics of female players. Paper III assessed the suitability of the commonly used Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) by comparing the questionnaire scores against indicators associated with the female athlete triad (Triad) and LEA. In Paper IV, we assessed the prevalence of indicators associated with REDs and formulated a cumulative risk index, based on their strength of association with REDs, providing better risk information regarding the development of the syndrome. Results Paper I demonstrated that all examined tracking devices significantly underestimated the energetic cost of intermittent exercise, ranging between 10.7 – 20.6%. All devices revealed a systematic inverse relationship with increasing exercise intensity. Omitting excess post-exercise oxygen consumption from the calculation significantly improved the accuracy with underestimation between 3.1 – 7.2%. In paper II, the average total daily energy expenditure was 2918 ± 322 kcal (physical activity level of 2.0 ± 0.3). The average EI was 2274 ± 450 kcal. A significant difference was observed between EI on match vs rest days (p < 0.05), but not between match versus training or training vs rest days. Carbohydrate intake on both match and training days was below the recommended guidelines for large parts of the cohort. The prevalence of LEA was 36% and 23% on match and training days, respectively. Paper III examined the suitability of the LEAF-Q as an indicator of the Triad and LEA; however, the area under the curve (AUC) for the LEAF-Q showed poor performance (0.44 – 0.53) for all clinical markers, apart from detection of amenorrhea (AUC = 0.86). The questionnaire did not statistically differentiate players classified as at risk or not at risk based on broad indicators of LEA. In paper IV, the absence of any primary, secondary, or associated indicators ranged between 33-55%. However, 22% presented with clustered primary and secondary indicators, which was unrelated to player position. Amenorrhea was reported by 30% of the non-contraceptive users (n = 27). Amenorrheic players displayed a significantly greater number of cumulative indicators compared to eumenorrheic players (p < 0.05). Conclusion Current generation of tracking devices did not provide accurate estimates of the energetic cost of intermittent exercise, consequently undermining the validity of EA assessment using these devices. While the energetic requirements of female football players appear to be moderate, a substantial portion of the cohort did not meet the nutritional requirements, notably pertinent to carbohydrates. Furthermore, there was limited evidence of nutritional periodization. Despite a marked prevalence of LEA, the LEAF-Q was not able to reliably identify players at risk for developing of health detriments. Continued usage of the LEAF-Q to detecting LEA among female football players can not be recommended. Rather, methods to evaluate player health outcomes, such as identifying the presence of clinical indicators associated with REDs should be prioritized to provide better risk assessments for the individual athlete, as sole assessments EA seems to insufficiently reflect health risk among female football players.en_US
dc.identifier.urihttps://hdl.handle.net/10037/32305
dc.language.isoengen_US
dc.publisherUiT The Arctic University of Norwayen_US
dc.publisherUiT Norges arktiske universiteten_US
dc.relation.haspart<p>Paper I: Dasa, M.S., Friborg, O., Kristoffersen, M., Pettersen, G., Sundgot-Borgen, J. & Rosenvinge, J.H. (2022). Accuracy of tracking devices’ ability to assess exercise energy expenditure in professional female soccer players: implications for quantifying energy availability. <i>International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH), 19</i>(8), 4770. Also available in Munin at <a href=https://hdl.handle.net/10037/26215>https://hdl.handle.net/10037/26215</a>. <p>Paper II: Dasa, M.S., Friborg, O., Kristoffersen, M., Pettersen, G., Plasqui, G., Sundgot-Borgen, J. & Rosenvinge, J.H. (2023). Energy expenditure, dietary intake and energy availability in female professional football players. <i>BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 9</i>, e001553. Also available in Munin at <a href=https://hdl.handle.net/10037/30105>https://hdl.handle.net/10037/30105</a>. <p>Paper III: Dasa, M.S., Friborg, O., Kristoffersen, M., Pettersen, G., Sagen, J.V., Sundgot-Borgen, J. & Rosenvinge, J.H. (2023). Evaluating the suitability of the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) for female football players. <i>Sports Medicine – Open, 9</i>, 54. Also available in Munin at <a href=https://hdl.handle.net/10037/30757>https://hdl.handle.net/10037/30757</a>. <p>Paper IV: Dasa, M.S., Friborg, O., Kristoffersen, M., Pettersen, G., Sagen, J.V., Torstveit, M.T., Sundgot-Borgen, J. & Rosenvinge, J.H. Prevalence of indicators associated with Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) among professional female football players. (Manuscript in review).en_US
dc.rights.accessRightsopenAccessen_US
dc.rights.holderCopyright 2024 The Author(s)
dc.rights.urihttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0en_US
dc.rightsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)en_US
dc.subjectSports medicineen_US
dc.subjectREDsen_US
dc.subjectEnergy expenditureen_US
dc.subjectfemale footballen_US
dc.titleEnergetics, energy availability and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) in female football players - Methodological perspectives and research implicationsen_US
dc.typeDoctoral thesisen_US
dc.typeDoktorgradsavhandlingen_US


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